就具体限制措施而言,因为案情不同,要保护的权利也有区别,所以在每个适用演化解释方法的案件中对该方法的具体限制也会不同。但是,一些原则性的限制已被提出,例如,欧洲人权法院的法官曾在反对意见中指出:“演化解释……不允许将全新的概念或适用范围引人到该公约中,因为这是属于欧洲理事会各成员国的立法职能……”。[37]也就是说,演化解释应在条约已有概念的基础上进行。该意见后被欧洲人权法院采纳,在另一案件中,它认为,演化方法不能适用过头,以致于由此产生一项一开始并没有被条约规定的权利。[38]此外,国际法院也指出,演化解释方法运用的“外部界限”应是条约的目的和宗旨,[39]即对条约用语的演化解释不能违背条约的目的和宗旨。当然,不得违背善意原则也是应有之意。[40]
四、启示:运用演化解释方法的路径
“哥斯达黎加诉尼加拉瓜案”和“中美出版物市场准入案”等案件表明,演化解释已经成为条约解释的一个新趋势,但该方法的实践运用却遭到批评与质疑。从条约解释的法理来看,演化解释方法在实践运用中确实存在武断性、机械性和片面性等问题。
从上述分析和探讨可以看出,一方面,条约解释是一个综合的、灵活的过程,解释时既要综合考虑案件中的各个解释要素,又要对其灵活运用;另一方面,要对演化解释方法的运用进行必要的限制。具体而言,如果相关当事国在条约约文中明确约定按照缔约当时的意义或按演化后的当下意义解释,当然要尊重此意图,并按此意图解释。如果当事国没有明确的意思表示,那么就要推定其是否有此意图。推定的依据是案件中的各个解释要素,包括条约用语、上下文、目的和宗旨,以及解释的补充资料等,而与上下文一并考虑的还有当事国间的嗣后协定或嗣后惯例等。[41]对推定过程可分解如下:
首先,可以按照条约用语现在的通常意义—上下文—目的和宗旨—补充资料的顺序,然后再结合其他要素如善意原则进行综合考虑。
其次,如果有确凿的证据如准备资料证明,当事国的意图是让条约用语根据缔约时或当前的意义解释,那么按照该意图解释。
再次,如果没有相关证据,当案件中当事国分别主张采用演化解释方法和当时意义解释方法,或者国际争端解决机构认为有必要考虑演化解释方法,那么应对两种方法运用的不同后果进行权衡,在不违背善意原则和条约的目的与宗旨的前提下,可以考虑选择对现有利益损害较小或有利于保护较大利益的解释方法,不能只根据条约用语的“通常性”就直接推定应采用演化解释方法。
最后,如果选择适用演化解释方法,必须基于条约中已有的概念,而且不得超越条约的目的与宗旨和善意原则等限制。
【作者简介】
吴卡,单位为浙江师范大学。
【注释】也有学者使用“当代意义解释法”这一名称。例如,曾令良教授指出:“这种当代意义解释法本质上是一种动态的或演变的解释法,或称之为一种与时俱进的解释方法。”见曾令良:《从“中美出版物市场准入案”上诉机构裁决看条约解释的新趋势》,载《法学》2010年第8期。但笔者认为,“演化解释”这一名称似乎更能反映这一本质;而且从相关的外文资料来看,最常用的也是evolutive interpretaiton这一表达方式。基于这两点考虑,本文采用“演化解释”这一名称。
目前的国际法理论与实践都认为《条约法公约》第31-32条是条约解释的习惯国际法规则。See Anthony Aust, ModemTreaty Law and Practice (second edition),Cambridge: Cambndge University Press, 2007, p.232; Martin Dawidowicz, “The Effect of the Passage ofTime on the Interpretation of Treaties: Some Reflections on Costa Rica v. Nicaragua” , 24 Leiden Journal of International Law (2011),p.205; RichardGardiner, Treaty Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, p.7; Alexander Orakhelashvili, The Interpretaion of Acts and Rules in PublicInternational Law,Oxford: Oxford Universtity Press, 2008, pp.313-316.
参见张新军:《<中日联合声明>“放弃战争赔偿要求”放弃了什么—基于条约解释理论的批判思考》,载《清华法学》2010年第2期。
联合国国际法院、国际常设仲裁法院、WTO上诉机构、欧洲人权法院和美洲人权法院等国际争端解决机构在涉及领土、环境、贸易和人权等领域的争端解决实践中都运用了演化解释方法。按照时间顺序,这方面的代表性案件有:Legal Consequences forStates of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970),AdvisoryOpinion ICJ, 1971; Aegean Sea Continental Shelf (Greece v. Turkey),Judgment of ICJ, 1978; United States-Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimpand Shrimp Products, WT/DS58/AB/R, 1998; The Right to Information on Consular Assistance In the Framework of the Guarantees of the Due Processof Law, Advisory Opinion OC-16/99, Inter-Am. Ct. H. R. 1999; Award in the Arbitration Regarding the Iron Rhine Railway between the Kingdom of Belgium and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Award of PCA, 2005; Case Concerning the Dispute Regarding Navigational and Related Rights (CostaRica v. Nicaragua),Judgment of ICJ, 2009; China-Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and Audiovisu-al Entertainment Products, WT/DS363/AB/R, 2009
See Case Concerning the Dispute Regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),Verbatim Record, 5 March 2009,CR 2009/4 (uncorrected),at 50, para.4 (Mr Pellet on behalf of Nicaragua).
See Case Concerning the Dispute Regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),Verbatim Record, 5 March 2009,CR 2009/4 (uncorrected),at 35, naras.57-59 (Mr Kohen on behalf of Costa Rica)
See note,paras. 66-67.
See note,para.71.
See China-Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and Audiovisual Entertainment Products,Report of the Panel, WT/DS363/R, paras.7. pp.1172-1181.
See China-Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and Audiovisual Entertainment Products,Report of the Appellate Body, WT/RDS363/AB/R, para.47.
See note,para.396.
See note,para.705。
国外有代表性的研究成果有:Martin Dawidowicz, “The Effect of the Passage of Time on the Interpretation of Treaties: Some Reflectionson Costa Rica v. Nicaragua”, 24 Leiden Journal of International Law (2011);Julian Arato, “Subsequent Practice and Evolutive Interpretation: Tech-niques of Treaty Interpretation over Time and Their Diverse Consequences”, 9 The Law and Practice of International Courts and Tribunals (2010);Mal-gosia Fitzmaurice, “Dynamic (Evolutive) Interpretation of Treaties”,Part I, 21 Hague Yearbook of International Law (2008);Part II, 22 Hague Year-book of International Law (2009) ; Richard Gardiner, Treaty Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009; Michael Alstine, “Dynamic TreatyInterpretation”, 146 University of Pennsylvania Law Review (1998).国内方面则主要有注曾令良文;王衡:《WTO 服务贸易承诺减让表之解释问题研究—以“中美出版物和视听产品案”为例》,载《法商研究》2010年第4期;房东:《对“文本”的扬弃:WTO条约解释方法的一种修正—以服务贸易具体承诺表的解释为分析起点》,载《法律科学》2011年第3期;王友根、龚柏华:《中美出版物和音响产品市场准入WTO争端案述评》,载《国际商务研究》2010年第1期。
参见[英]詹宁斯、瓦茨修订:《奥本海国际法》第一卷第二分册,中国大百科全书出版社1995年版,第662页;IanBrownlie, Principles of Public International Lau,Oxford University Press, 2008, p.631.
Ibid. note,Julian Arato.
See International Law Commission, Conclusions of the Work of the Study Group on the Fragmentation of International Lau:Difficulties Arisingfrom the Diversification and Expansion of International Lau,2006, para.23.
Ibid. note,Alexander Orakhelashvili, p.312.
See note,Anthony Aust, p.234; Richard Gardiner, p.33, p.142
United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties, Official Records:Douanents of the Conference, A/CONF/39/11/Add.2, p.39, para.8
Ibid. note,Richard Gardiner, p.6
参见注张新军文,第135页。
See note,Richard Gardiner, p.41.
Case Concerning the Dispute Regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),Judgment of 13 July 2009, Separate
Opinion of Judge Skotnikov.
See Case Concerning the Dispute Regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),Rejoinder of Nicaragua, 15 July2008, para.3.98.
See note.
Case concerning Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Namibia v Botswana),Judgment of ICJ, 2009, para.49.
Ibid. note,Julian Arato.
同注曾令良文,第17页。
同注,房东文。
See G. Fitzmaurice, “The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice 1951-4: Treaty Interpretation and Other Treaty Points”,33BYIL (1957), p.203, p.212, pp.225-227.另参见李浩培:《条约法概论》,法律出版社2003年第2版,第350页。
Island of Palrnas (Netherlands v. United States),Award of 4 April 1928, RIAA, Vol. Ⅱ, p.845.
Ibid.
See note,Malgosia Fitzmaurice, Part I, p.107.
See note,Martin Dawidowicz, p.206.
See note,Julian Arato, p.446.
R. Higgins, “Some observations on the Inter-Temporal Rule in International Law”, edited in Jerzy Makarczyk, Theory of International lawat the Threshold of the 21st Century: Essays in Honour of Krzysztof Skubiszewski, Kluwer: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996, p.173.
Feldbrugge v. Netherlands, ECHR case, No. 8/1984/80/127, 1986, Joint dissenting opinion.
See Johnson v. Ireland, ECtHR. (ser.A).1986, para.53.
See Case Concerning the Dispute Regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),Judgment of ICJ, 2009, para.68.
善意原则贯穿于条约解释的整个过程,各个解释要素的适用都要符合该原则,条约的演化解释自不例外。
参见廖诗评:《条约冲突的基本问题及其解决方法》,载《法学家》2010年第1期。