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In Confucianism, human dignity is a composite normative concept and, as such, implies conceptual elements on three related but distinct dimensions: descriptive, prescriptive, and emotive. On the descriptive (or cognitive) dimension, the concept contains the belief in the basic facts about human life or, more accurately, about the possibilities of human life, based on empirical observations of social interactions among human beings. This is the relatively objective realm of “is” or “can”. The prescriptive (or evaluative) dimension, on the other hand, presupposes the subjective valuation of these facts by human individuals or groups, from which the prescriptive notion of “ought” is derived. On this dimension, the concept implies evaluative determination of what types of human life, actions or dispositions to act are to be regarded as “good”, noble, and praiseworthy, and positively prescribes a duty to develop, maintain, and preserve--at least refrain from harming--the conceived good. Thus, the first two dimensions defines the normative meaning of a value concept. Finally, the emotive dimension entails the behavioral manifestations naturally ensue from believing in and subscribing to the norm. It can include, for example, the exhibited psychological satisfaction and confidence derived from continuous moral practice prescribed by the norm, or the natural sentiments it arouses in common people, such as approbation for what they perceive as conforming (thus desirable) behaviors and antipathy to deviant practices. In this way, the emotive dimension furnishes a partial empirical “proof” for the universal presence of the norm within normally developed human beings.
I shall seek to explain below the term “human dignity” along these three dimensions.
3.1. The Meaning of Dignity as Exemplified in Confucian Gentleman
Descriptively, human dignity stands for a set of beliefs about human life or the kind of life that human beings are capable of living. Here the concept contains two aspects about human nature: potential and actual (which roughly corresponds to Gewirth’s notion of “inherent” and “empirical” dignity, or Stetson’s notion of “intrinsic” and “extrinsic” dignity)[60]. The vision of unique human potentials sets the end for a good life, and requires active pursuit to actualize these potentials. The Confucian idea of human dignity is thus closely related to its central concepts of innate virtues, the personality of gentleman (Junzi),[61] and the Principle of the Mean (Zhong Yong). It should be noted that, unlike virtues in the Greek sense which stand for acquired moral habits, “virtues” used here to translate the Chinese word De means potentials in a human being, and is sometimes translated equivalently as potency, power, or capacities. In other words, the Chinese “virtues” are not primary faculties ready to carry out certain types of actions (e.g., the quality of justice as propensity to act justly), but only secondary faculties that enable a person to acquire the primary faculties (e.g., the ability to become a just person through some effort).[62]
The Confucianists believe that men are endowed by Heaven (Tian, equivalent in meaning to Nature) with a set of innate virtues. In one occasion, Confucius makes a remark about himself that “Heaven produced virtue in me”.[63] Mencius further develops this assumption of human nature into an ontological doctrine. Everyone is endowed from Heaven, he says, with four beginnings (Si Duan) of “heart-mind” (Xin); they are the seats for four cardinal virtues: humanity (Ren), righteousness (Yi), propriety (Li), and wisdom (Zhi).[64] While the heart-mind for shame and distaste (for one’s own bad behavior) is the seat of feeling for justice, the heart-mind for compassion is the origin of humanity. Humanity and justice are the inborn moral qualities which defines the essential character of a human being and without which a man would be reduced to a mere animal. With adequate education, learning and self-cultivation, these innate capacities will be actualized in a person, making him a mature gentleman. It is to be noted that, since very early in Confucianism, gentleman became a respectful title for anyone who acquired high moral status. As Liang Qichao points out, “Junzi is not a word denoting one’s social status; it is a word that denotes one’s moral status. In other words, Junzi represents a person who has perfected his Ren Ge”.[65]
To Confucius, one becomes a gentleman when he has succeeded in cultivating balanced virtues based on the central Principle of the Mean. Confucius makes it unambiguous that a gentleman is one who consciously follows the Principle of Mean, by which he unites himself with Heaven. The ability to act according to the Mean becomes the definitive criterion for distinguishing a gentleman from a mean-spirited “littleman” (xiao ren), a “small person” with low moral status.[66] Thus, “a gentleman act according to the Mean; a littleman act contrary to the Mean. Because a gentleman maintains the Mean, he always act to a perfect degree”.[67] As a result, in a gentleman, we find several primary virtues in a harmonious proportion: “Benevolent, he is free from worries; wise, he is free from perplexities; courageous, he is free from fear”.[68] The best example is Confucius himself, who is praised for being “gentle but serious, awe-inspiring but not harsh, respectful but calm”.[69]
Now, one may contend that the Principle of the Mean is too general to guide concrete human conduct, and the specific virtues are either too vague (e.g. what is the meaning of humanity, Ren?) or, once they received a fixed interpretation, quickly become dogmatic and anachronistic (e.g. to be Ren is to respect one’s parents and, thus, when either of them dies, to mourn for three years). Further, even the Confucianists might not agree among themselves as to which virtues (e.g. Ren or Li?) should be placed at the highest hierarchy and govern others, or how they should be interpreted. While these contentions do carry some force, they by no means undermine the basic Confucian idea that man is endowed with a set of unique potentials that characterize him as man; and such traditional virtues as humanity, justice, wisdom, courage, and propriety of conduct, still receive wide approbation today, even though their interpretations may be disputed and modified over time. In other words, while the descriptive content of what constitutes human dignity may vary, there is nevertheless the Confucian consensus that a meaningful content is there. We should reject the dogmatic tendency in Confucianism and admit, with MacIntyre,[70] that our conception of man is not static, but a dialectic progress, which changes with time, circumstances, and the improvement of human understanding. Yet this does not preclude society from accepting, at any given time, a prevailing view about human nature upon which its moral judgment is based.
One essential virtue, whose social acceptance does have withstood the test of time, is justice (Yi). A Confucian gentleman is above all a righteous man, who always directs his action according to justice as required by the Principle of the Mean. Thus, “a gentleman stands erect in the middle, without inclining to either side.”[71] He ties himself fast to that principle, without being swayed by such external influences as profits, power, or financial difficulties.[72] “A gentleman does not give up his righteousness when he is poor; nor does he deviate from the Way when he is prosperous.... If poor, he cultivate his virtue in solitude; if prosperous, he strives to bring virtue to the whole world.”[73] Nor is the principle of his behavior least affected by his socio-political status, as “in a high position, he refrains from treating his inferiors with contempt; in a low position, he refuses to court the favor of his superiors. He rectifies himself, and seeks for nothing from the others”.[74] Nor should the state of politics distract him from following the path of justice: “When good principles prevail in his government, he tenaciously pursues his goal.... When bad principles prevail in the country, he maintains his course to death without changing.”[75]
Firm commitment to righteousness confers physical and moral independence upon a gentleman. By claiming more than one deserves (for example, undue prestige or salaries), the acts of injustice indicate a state of dependence on the others--the signature of a morally inferior mind. On the contrary, a gentleman relies not on the changeable wills of other men, but on his own effort through which he can bring about the actualization of his innate qualities endowed from Heaven, thereby achieving true autonomy.[76] Having identified himself with the Way of Heaven, a gentleman will act on his own initiative, independent from any pressure, power or opinion of other men. He is to act justly under all circumstances, with or without the awareness or presence of the others. For even if nobody on earth knows his virtues and vices, the omniscient Heaven and he himself would know; and an unjust action merely degrades his personal dignity, making him feeling the shame in his mind. For this reason a gentleman must take care of his virtue even when he is in solitude.[77] Meanwhile, once he has sincerely examined himself according to the principle of justice and left his mind free from any sense of moral shame or guilt, a gentleman becomes the most courageous of all men, and cannot be compelled by any external force, least by the fear for other men’s power. Thus, from Confucius’ disciple we learn the master’s great courage: “on self-examination, if I find that I fail to be righteous, I would not threaten a single man, be he in an inferior status; but, on self-examination, if I find that I am righteous, I will go forward even against a crowd of a million men”.[78]
To summarize, a Confucian gentleman is a person who has actualized in a balanced fashion the innate virtues endowed from Heaven as a human being. S/he exemplifies the Confucian ideal moral character that any person can attain through continuous moral learning and practice. In the words of Mencius, a gentleman is “to dwell in the magnificent house of humanity, to stand in the right place of propriety, and to walk on the great path of justice; when he succeeds in obtaining an office, to practice his principles together with his people; when his effort is frustrated, to persist in the practice of these principles alone. Wealth and honor cannot corrupt him; poverty and low status cannot move him (away from justice); and power and force cannot subjugate him”.[79]
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