五、结论
理想的银行破产制度应当兼顾效率和公平。责任豁免看似能让监管机构更好地处置银行破产问题,实则削弱了其更审慎地履行职能的必要性,也影响了银行破产成本分担的公平性。从经济、政策和正义层面来看,给予监管机构侵权责任的绝对豁免并不合适,绝对豁免与金融体系稳定、效率和正义的目标是背道而驰的。
从英美司法实践可以看出,尽管其适用的规则迥异,却达到了相似的结果:监管机构得到了绝对的豁免。美国虽然没有银行监管机构豁免的立法,法院通过对自由裁量功能例外原则的解释实际上给予其全面豁免。英国的银行法虽然赋予监管机构部分豁免,法院通过对“恶意”的限制性解释也同样坚持了绝对豁免的立场。两国的做法与普通法系一些根深蒂固的传统是密不可分的。权力分立的传统是普通法系国家的法院不愿过多干预行政事务的根源。面对银行监管机构的侵权之诉,普通法系国家的法院意识到其自身能力的缺陷和权力制衡的宪法性约束,自觉地对其角色采取了自我抑制,不愿意对涉及行政自由裁量权的行为进行干预。
随着英国逐渐被动地融入欧洲一体化进程,英美的立场呈现出分化的趋势。第一,对银行股东的损害赔偿问题,英国法院绝对豁免的立场出现了松动。美国由于大量小银行的存在,银行破产率居高不下,民众对于政府的压力使政府倾向于将银行破产的损失转嫁给银行股东。而英国的司法制度越来越多地受到欧洲法院和欧洲人权法院的影响,欧洲相关公司法指令为公司股东提供了充分的保护,许多公司股东权利同样适用于银行股东。英国司法判例逐渐向传统大陆法系国家如德法靠拢。由于英国法院的司法判决可能被欧洲法院所推翻,因此英国竭力通过实体性解释,意图维持对监管机构的绝对豁免,但这种立场可能将来因违背欧洲法院的判决被迫进行修正。而美国则不然,其法院的司法独立不受到任何约束,因此可以坚持其绝对豁免的司法立场。第二,英美对银行破产中的存款人保护差异较大。美国的存款保险额比较高,银行破产时存款人很少受到损失,针对监管机构的侵权诉讼的发起人主要为银行股东。而英国由于存款保险限制相对较高,发生银行破产时,许多存款人纷纷针对监管机构提起诉讼。英国和欧洲法院的司法判例表明,存款人已无可能因监管机构的过失而获得损害赔偿。
关于银行监管机构侵权责任的一些理论可以广泛应用到其他类似的侵权诉讼中去。银行监管机构的侵权责任理论,被应用到其他针对监管性机构,如食品、公路、医药和消防的侵权之诉。公共机关的侵权诉讼主要使用经济和政策的分析方法,笔者认为,除了考虑经济和政策因素之外,此类诉讼应置于正义的视角下进行审视。在维持效率的同时,应当分析受害人和监管机构在损害过程中的角色,而不能采取过于僵硬的绝对豁免方式,以实现分配正义和纠正正义的统一。
【作者简介】
苏洁澈,北京邮电大学人文学院,讲师。
【注释】Three Rivers District Council and Othersv.Bank of England UKHL16;Franklin Sav.Ass’n v.Dir.,Office of Thrift Supervision,934 F.2d 1127 (10th Cir 1991);Cour Administrative d’Appel de Paris,25 January 2000,Kechichian,Req.93 PA01250 (unreported);M.Andenas and D.Fairgrieve,“Misfeasance in Public Office,Governmental Liability,and European Influences”,ICLQ (2002),pp.757-780.
周仲飞教授认为,给予监管机构责任豁免是银行监管机构独立性的重要保障。参见周仲飞:《银行监管机构问责性的法律保障机制》,载《法学》2007年第7期。
许多欧洲国家的受害人已经根据
宪法和人权法针对监管机构的侵权行为提起了诉讼。
See Principle 1 of the Core Principles for Effective Banking Supervision,Basel Committee on Bank Supervision,1997,p.4,p.13.
下列国家在其立法中给予了金融监管机构法定的保护:英国、美国、德国、澳大利亚、新加坡、南非等。参见R.S.Delston,“Statutory Protection for Banking Supervisors”,World Bank Financial Sector Website Paper No.4 (1999),available at http://www1.worldbank.org/finance/html/statutory-protection.html (last visited 25 March 2010).
See B.S.Markesinis,Always on the Same Path:Essay on Foreign Lawand Comparative Methodology,2001,hart,p.250;C.Hadjiemmanuil,Banking Regulation and the Bank of England(Lodon:LLP 1996),Ch5;H.McLean,“Negligent Regulatory Authorities and the Duty of Care”,(1988) 8 (3) Oxford Journal of Legal Studies,442,p.450;C.Booth and D.Squires,the Negligence Liability ofPublic Authorities,2006,oxford,pp.168-208;Yuen Kun Yeu vAG of Hong KongAC 175,185;Three Rivers D.C v.Bank of England2 W.L.R.15;Franklin Savings Corp.v.U.S,385 F.3d 1279,(10th Cir 2004).
关于各国对诉讼泛滥理论的讨论,同注,Hadjiemmanuil,p.352;S.Deakin,A.Johnston,and B.Markesinis,Tort Law,6thedn,2008,p.400;D.Fairgrieve,StateLiabilityinTort:A Comparative Law Study,Oxford,2003,p.64;M.Bussani and V.V.Palmer,Pure Economic Loss in Europe(2005,Cambridge),pp.16-17;T.J.Stern,“Federal Judges and Fearingthe‘Floodgates of litigation’”,(2003) 6 University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law,p.381;C.Khan,“Restricting State Liability inTort on Grounds of Policy:A Comparative Study of English and French Law”,(2007) 18 (5) E.B.L.R,pp.1133-1140.
外部性指经济交易的相对方的行为对第三方所产生的影响,包括积极外部性和消极外部性。传统经济学将外部性作为市场失灵的重要原因之一。
将公共政策作为监管责任豁免的理由与经济理由有着部分重叠,如避免诉讼泛滥在许多国家被认为属于公共政策问题。
See A.Crockett,“Why is Financial Stability A Goal of Public Policy?”,(1997) 4 Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City,pp.5-22.
这一理论认为,当金融监管机构行使自由裁量之功能时,法院不应当以自己的观点替代监管机构的决定。参见United Statesv.Gaubert,499 US 315,322 (1991);The Law Commission,“Monetary Remedies in Public Law:A Discussion Paper”,2004,para2.59-60.
See B.S.Markesinis,et al,Tortious Liability of Statutory Bodies:A Comparative and Economic Analysis ofFive English Cases,oxford,1999,p.88;同注,Khan,p.1107;同注,Law Commission,para.2.60.
United States v.VarigAirlines,467 U.S.S.Ct.797,814 (1984);United States v.Gaubert,499 US 315,322 (1991).
关于金融巡视官制度的讨论,参见M.Blair QC and G.Walker,Financial Service Law,2006,Oxford,pp.24-29;See also:D.Singh,Banking Regulation of UK and USF inancial Markets,2007,pp.191-198;P.Morris and R.James,‘The Financial Ombudsman Services:ABrave New World in“Ombudsman”?’,Public Law,2002,p.640.
See B.Markesinis and J.Fedtke,“Authority or Reason? The Economic Consequences ofLiability for Breach of Statutory Duty in a Comparative Perspective”,(2007) E.B.L.R,pp.5-75;B.Markesinis and J.Fedtke,“Damages for the Negligence of Statutory Bodies:the Empirical and Comparative Dimension to an Unending Debate”,(2007) Public Law,pp.299-330.
英国法院的判例表明,公法上的不法性(unlawfulness)和非理性(Irrationality)成为让公共机关承担侵权责任的障碍。参见F.Rossi,“Tort Liability of Financial Regulators:A Comparative Study of Italian and English Law in a European Context”,(2003) E.B.L.R.,p.650.
同注,Markesinis and Fedtke,p.327;R.A.Surma,“A Comparative Study of the English and German Judicial Approachtothe Liability of Public in Negligent”,in D.Fairgrieve,et al,eds,Tort Liability of Public Authorities in Comparative Perspective,BIICL,2002,p.390;P.Craigand D.Fairgrieve,“Barrett,Negligence and Discretionary Powers”,(1999) Public Law,p.626,636;欧洲人权法院通过其判例,明确拒绝成员国可以将“防御性策略”作为责任豁免的理由。参见Osman v.United Kingdom (1998) EHRR 455.
上述两个案子中,监管机构存在明显的过失,监管机构所掌握的信息足够表明所监管银行可能破产,却迟迟未能对问题银行进行干预,而允许其继续吸收存款,这增加了存款人的损失。
See B.Wessels,“Liabilities of Regulatory Supervisory Bodies of Troubled Financial Institutions (Insurance,Banking) in the Netherlands”,(1996) International Insolvency Law Review,pp.125-138;I.Giesen,“Regulating Regulators through Liability:the Case for Applying Normal TortRules to Supervisors”,(2006) 2 (1) Utrecht Law Review,p.23;R.J.Dijkstra,“Liability of Financial Regulators:Defensive Conduct or Careful Supervision”,(2009) 10 (4) Journal of Banking Regulation,p.282.
See Stovin v.Wise3 WLR 388,406.
此种情形下,银行股东将原本应当由其承担的银行破产成本转嫁给了全体纳税人,因此产生了消极外部性。
See R.Coase,The Nature of The Firm,1937,Economic,pp.386-405.
同注,Markesinis,pp.219-224;福利经济学认为:如果社会整体福利增加了,则结果是经济有效的。福利经济学将个体的整体福利总量作为社会整体福利。
J.Morgan,“The Rise and Fall of the General Duty of Care”,(2006) Professional Negligence,p.206,211.
See http://www.financial-ombudsman.org.uk/about/index.html;FSMA 2000,s226.
2009年的金融危机进一步证实了各国对金融监管机构的司法审查作用的有限性。See G.A.Gegenheimer,“Judicial Review of Bank Supervisory Decisions in the Former Soviet Republics:The Case of Kyrgyzstan”,(2006) 25 Annual Reviewof Banking&Financial Law,p.295,347.
“Laws and institutions no matter how efficient and well-arranged must be reformed or abolished if they are unjust”.J.Rawls,A Theory of Justice:Revised Edition,Oxford,1999,p.3.
‘Distributive justice is concerned with distributing resources,opportunities,honors and profits amongst the members of a community or group.’See P.Cane,“Distributive Justice and Tort Law”,(2001) New Zealand Law Review,p.401,p.405.
See J.L.Coleman,“Tort Law and the Demands of Corrective Justice”,(1992) 67 Indiana Law Journal,p.349,358.
1998《英格兰银行法》将原先英格兰银行对银行的监管职能转移给了金融服务局,英格兰银行履行央行的职能,主要对市场的流动性实行监管。关于英国金融监管改革,参见M.Andenas and D.Fairgrieve,‘To Supervise or to Compensate? A Comparative Study of State Liability for Negligent Banking Supervision’,in M.Andenas and D.Fairgrieve,Judicial Review in International Perspective,(2000),p.336.
See Schedule 1,Section 43 (1),43 (2),43 (3) of the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000,p.21.
See Section 46 (1),Part IVof the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000,p.22.
See S.205 of the FSMA 2000.
See S.206 of the FSMA 2000.
See S.45 (2),(2A),s.54,of the FSMA2000.
See Section 33 (1),33 (2) Part III of the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000,p.15;S.63 of the FSMA 2000.
See A.Campbell and P.Cartwright,Banks in Crisis:the Legal Response,2002,ashgate,pp.120-56.
2009年通过的英国银行法将银行破产程序分为特殊处置程序、清算和银行管理程序。参见邵沙平、苏洁澈:《金融危机法律应对措施的国际视野——以银行业为例的分析》,载《甘肃社会科学》2009年第5期;E.Avgouleas,“Banking Supervision and the Special Resolution Regime of the Banking Act 2009:the unfinished Reform”,(2009) 4 (2) Capital Markets Law Journal,pp.201-235;B.Pennand D.Measor,“A Guide to the Banking Bill 2008”,(2009) 3 (1) Law and Financial Markets Review,pp.34-40.
See S.1 (3) of the Banking Act 2009.
See Lochgelly Iron and Coal Co.v.M’MullanAC 1,25.
参见Anns v.Merton London Borough CouncilA.C.728,at 751-52;随后的Caparo Industries v. Dickman,2 AC 605,HL,617-18,将可预见性、紧密性和公平合理性作为注意义务的考虑因素。
参见注,Anns案,第751-752页。在Annes案中,法院将“紧密性原则”(相邻原则)和政策因素作为注意义务的重要考虑因素。
同注。
See Yuen Kun Yeu vAG of Hong KongAC 176.
同注,第182页。
同注。
同注。
See Dorset Yachtv.Home OfficeAC 1004 (HL).在该案中,几个少年犯逃脱小岛监狱,乘坐帆船逃走,为了避免被警察追到,破坏了附近的船只。法院认为监管当局没有尽到注意义务,而导致了船主的损失。
英国原先对纯经济损失通常不予赔偿,后来虽然认可了此种损失的可救济性,却对其施加了比有形财产更为严格的标准。参见Hedley Byrne&Co.Ltd.v.Heller and Partners Ltd.,AC465.
See Davis v Radcliffe1 W.L.R.821 (PC (IoM)).
立法同时规定,这种法定豁免不能违背人权法第六条。参见Schedule 1,Section 19 (1) of the Financial Service and Markets Act2000;A.Arora,“The Statutory System of the Bank Supervision and the Failure of BCCI”,(2006) Journal of Business Law,p.487,501.
该案历时14年,原告诉求高达5亿英镑,英格兰银行花费了上百万英镑的诉讼费用。参见Three Rivers District Council and Others v.Bank of England(No.3),3ALL ER 558;2.W.L.R.1220;3 ALL E.R.1;No.2 UKHL16;2 A.C.1 (HL);EWHC 2730;UKHL 48.
See A.Grubb,The Law ofTort,2nd,eds,2007,p.926.
See Lloyd’s Rep.Bank.186.
同注,Grubb,p.926.
同注,Arora,p.501.
同注。
同注,第142页。
同注,第145页。
同,第148页。
See Thompson,“Criminal Law and Property Law:An Unhappy Combination”,Conv.387.
该理论认为,监管机构应当对问题银行实行早期干预以避免公共资金的损失。参见G.G.Kaufman,“Bank failures,systemicrisk,and bank regulation”,(1996)16 (1)The Cato Journal,pp.29-34;D.G.Mayes,M.J.Nieto andL.Wall,“Multiple Safety Net Regulatorsand Agency Problems in the EU:Is Prompt Corrective Action Partly the Solution”,(2008) 4 Journal of Financial Stability,p.238.
See J.R.Macey,G.P.Miller and R.S.Carnell,Banking Law and Regulation,2001,p.307;D.G.Mayes,“Some Rules for Cross-boarder Banks in Europe”,(2009) 10 European Business Organization Law Review.
See 12 U.S.C§1821 (c)(2)(A).
See 12 U.S.C§1821 (d)(2)(B)(iii).
See First Empire Bank v.FDIC572 F.2d 1361,1365 (9th Cir 1978);12 U.S.C§1823 (d);.
See G.J.Beston and G.G.Kaufman,“FDICIA after Five Years”,(1997) 11 (3) The Journal of Economic Perspectives,p.150.
See A.M.Hackman,“Notes:The Discretionary Function Exception to the Federal Tort Claims Act:How Much Is Enough?”,(1997) 19Campbell Law Review,p.411,at 412;M.C.Niles,“‘Nothing but Mischief’:the Federal Tort Claims Act and the Scope of Discretionary Immunity”,(2002) 54 Administrative Law Review,p.1275,1297.
See 28 U.S.C.§2674;28 U.S.C.§1346 (b).
See R.H.Seamon,“Causation and Discretionary Function Exception to the Federal Tort ClaimAct”,(1997) 30 U.C.DavisLrev,p.691,700.
See United States v.Gaubert,499 U.S.315 (1991),323.
28 U.S.C.§2680 (a).
See Dalehite;Indian Towing Co.v.United States,350 U.S.61 (1955);H.J.Krent,“Preserving Discretion without Sacrificing Deterrence:Federal Governmental Liability inTort”,(1991) 38 UCLA Law Review,pp.878-881;D.N.Zillman,“Protecting Discretion:Judicial Interpretation of the Discretionary Function Exception to the Federal Tort Claims Act”,(1995) 47 Maine Law Review,p.366,368;涉及公共机关的侵权责任时,英国法院早期判例同样采用了政策和执行两分的方法。
See Dalehite;Indian Towing Co.v.United States,350 U.S.61 (1955).
See Indian Towing Co.v.United States,350 U.S.61 (1955);该案中海岸警卫队没有使灯塔的灯正常照明而导致了船舶的沉没。
同注,第318页。
Gaubert v.United States,885 F.2d 1284,1289 (CA 5,1989).
同注。
See Franklin Sav.Corp.v.United States,180 F.3d 1124,1131 (10th Cir.1999);Irvingv.United States,162 F.3d 154,157,169(1st Cir.1998);Bowman v.United States,848 F.Supp.979,986 (M.D.Fla.1994).
同注,Franklin案。
同注,p.1132.
同注pp.1132-1134.
See J.R.Levine,“The Federal Tort Claims Acts:A Proposal for Institutional Reform”,(2000) 100 Columbia Law Review,p.1538,1543.
See B.A.Peterson,M.D.Weide,“Susceptible to Faulty Analysis:United Statesv.Gaubert and the Resurrection of Federal Sovereign Immunity”,(1997) 72 Notre Dame L.Rev.,p.454,498.
同注,p.333.
A.Hyer,“The Discretionary Function Exception to the Federal Tort Claims Act:A Proposal for a Workable Analysis”,(2007)4 BrighamYoung University Law Review,pp.1107-1113;Levine,同注,p.1541.