第1条1.1(a) (1)的(i)、(ii)、(iii)、(iv) 规定的是判断“财政资助”是否存在的法律依据,这些规定也有可能构成解释“公共机构”的上下文,但其地位是次要的,具有决定意义的上下文毕竟是直接规定“公共机构”的“there is a financial contribution by a government or any public body within the territory of a Member (referred to in this Agreement as “government”), i.e. where:” 为解释“公共机构”援引上下文时,须谨慎考虑有关“财政资助”的规定所发挥的上下文的作用。
中国在指控中提出的in respect of the provision of goods (inputs), that the USDOC''s determinations that certain SOEs were "public bodies" were inconsistent with Article 1.1(a)(1) of the SCM Agreement和in respect of the provision of loans, that the USDOC''s determinations that certain SOCBs were "public bodies" were inconsistent with Article 1.1(a)(1) of the SCM Agreement,是适用“公共机构政府控制论”所得出的结论,本文考察的是如何解释“公共机构”就会得出如此结论,这样解释是否经得起推敲。
四、“公共机构政府职能论”评析
1. 论证逻辑
中国的论证由以下三个步骤构成:
一,如果反补贴调查部门不能提供关于这些国有企业(指国有工业企业和国有商业银行)在执行政府职能的证据,应该将其行为视为“私营机构”的行为,而不是“公共机构”的行为 [18];
二,只有证明这些国有企业是受到政府的“委托”和“指示”(规定于《SCM协定》第1条1.1(a)(1)(iv))后提供了原材料和贷款,商务部才能够合法地证明,中国政府提供了财政资助[19];
三,因为商务部未能证明是否存在委托和指示,其认定中国政府提供了财政资助的做法违反《SCM协定》第1条1.1[20]。[21]
这三个步骤紧密相连,依次形成条件关系。考察一可知,不能提供有关“国有企业执行政府职能”的证据,是将“国有企业”的行为视为“私营机构”行为的前提条件。[22]如果,这一点得不到证明,剩下的二和三就无须证明了。问题是中国为什么以“国有企业执行政府职能”为前提来展开指控呢?其依据是什么呢?更大而重要的问题是,“公共机构政府职能论”能否得到成立呢?严格来讲,中国应该先解释清楚“公共机构”,因为,是否有必要提出“国有企业执行政府职能”的证据取决于“公共机构”的解释。可见,中国论证的第一步就偏离了解释“公共机构”的主题。
无论如何,“公共机构”的解释在前,“国有企业”是否构成“公共机构”的认定在后,“国有企业”的行为是否被视为“私营机构”与“公共机构”的解释无关。[23] 因此,在考察中国的论证时,分析其是如何回答“公共机构政府职能论”的理由最为重要。在“公共机构政府只能论”得到确立之前,中国要求美国应该如何处理“国有企业”的行为云云是无的放矢。中国只有把“公共机构政府职能论”牢固地竖立起来,剩下的步骤才具有意义,并最终达到将“国有企业”从补贴提供主体范围中予以排除的目的。
2. “美国对韩国半导体反补贴调查案”
中国为确立“公共机构政府职能论”,援引了“美国对韩国半导体反补贴调查案”上诉机构报告。[24] 中国主张:“该案上诉机构确认,依据已经确立的国际习惯法原则,国有企业实体的行为首先(prima facie)属于私人(private)行为,而且,依据《SCM协定》第1条的规定,这样的行为应被推定为不归结于WTO成员。”[25]
从中国援引的上诉机构报告中,能否确认到上诉机构承认的这段内容(“有关国有企业实体的行为首先属于私人行为的国际习惯法原则”)呢?被援引的上诉机构报告第112段如下:
Paragraph (iv) of Article 1.1(a)(1) further states that the private body must have been entrusted or directed to carry out one of the type of functions in paragraphs (i) through (iii). As the panel in US – Export Restraints explained, this means that "the scope of the actions ... covered by subparagraph (iv) must be the same as those covered by subparagraphs (i)-(iii)". A situation where the government entrusts or directs a private body to carry out a function that is outside the scope of paragraphs (i) through (iii) would consequently fall outside the scope of paragraph (iv). Thus, we agree with the US – Export Restraints panel that "the difference between subparagraphs (i)-(iii) on the one hand, and subparagraph (iv) on the other, has to do with the identity of the actor, and not with the nature of the action." In addition, we must not lose sight of the fact that Article 1.1(a)(1)(iv) requires the participation of the government, albeit indirectly. We therefore agree with Korea that there must be a demonstrable link between the government and the conduct of the private body. [26]
从这段内容可知,这是“美国对韩国半导体反补贴调查案”上诉机构关于《SCM协定》第1条 1.1(a)(1)(iv) 规定的“委托”(Entrusts)和“指示”所做的解释。从这段内容中找不到类似“依据已经确立的国际习惯法原则,国有企业的行为首先属于私人行为,类似行为应被推定为不归结于WTO成员(政府)”的内容。可以肯定,中国所谓的“上诉机构确认的国际习惯法原则”不是上诉机构报告的原文,是其主观解释。
接着上述解释,中国谴责指出:商务部没有证明应该证明的问题,即“国有企业”或“国有商业银行”是否属于“私营机构”,以及这些实体提供原材料和贷款的行为是否受到了政府和公共机构的“指示”或“委托”等问题,相反,商务部依赖于有关政府大部分所有权的“当然法则”(per se rule)认定了这些实体属于“公共机构”。[27]
中国主张:商务部解释“公共机构”的做法违背条约解释原则的正确适用[28],虽然政府所有权与企业控制有关,但在证明《SCM协定》第1条1.1(a)(1)(iv) 所要求的私营机构是否受到了政府的指示时,所有权在决定某一实体是否属于公共机构的问题上具有很小的影响。[29]
本文针对上述中国的主张或解释质疑如下:
一.如前所述,在“美国对中国反补贴税案”中,如何解释“公共机构”的含义是争论的主题,是如何对待“国有企业”的前提,在“公共机构”的含义未得到澄清之前,无法做出关于“国有企业”行为的定位或评价。在未解释“公共机构”的情况下主张“国有企业”应被视为“私营机构”,是脱离主题的做法。[30]
二.退一步讲,即使承认“国有企业的行为首先(prima facie)属于私人行为”(事实上这与“公共机构政府职能论”的解释无关)的“国际习惯法原则”成立或存在,那么其能否适用于WTO争端解决程序是尚需斟酌的问题。除《WTO协定》之外,作为适用协定,DSU明确提到的国际法[31]只有《维也纳条约法公约》(或简称《公约》),在此需要对中国所援引的国际习惯法原则与《公约》的关系做一些分析。《公约》第31条规定如下:
SECTION 3. INTERPRETATION OF TREATIES
Article 31 General rule of interpretation
1. A treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose.
2. The context for the purpose of the interpretation of a treaty shall comprise, in addition to the text, including its preamble and annexes:
(a) any agreement relating to the treaty which was made between all the parties in connection with the conclusion of the treaty;
(b) any instrument which was made by one or more parties in connection with the conclusion of the treaty and accepted by the other parties as an instrument related to the treaty.
3. There shall be taken into account, together with the context:
(a) any subsequent agreement between the parties regarding the interpretation of the treaty or the application of its provisions;
(b) any subsequent practice in the application of the treaty which establishes the agreement of the parties regarding its interpretation;
(c) any relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between the parties.
4. A special meaning shall be given to a term if it is established that the parties so intended.
分析上述规定可知,条约的text是指解释条约用语所依据的context的核心内容,“国际习惯法原则”不属于text;“国际习惯法原则”不属于2(a)的 any agreement 和(b)的 any instrument;“国际习惯法原则”不属于3(a) 的any subsequent agreement 和(b)的 any subsequent practice,中美之间未签署此类法律文件,如果存在,须中国予以证明。
虽然,“国际习惯法原则”可能属于(c) any relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between the parties,但其适用性不是中国单方面所能决定的,中国需要证明:“国际习惯法原则”是relevant rules,而且applicable。
Relevant和applicable表明,不是所有的规则都可以适用于争端当事国的关系,而是要依据当事国的国际关系来考察试图予以适用的规则。无视直接规定“公共机构”的条约文本而谈论某种“国际习惯法原则”的适用性时,需要说明其理由。《公约》第32条[32]规定了解释条约的补充资料,其内容与“有关国有企业的行为首先属于私人行为的国际习惯法原则”无关,在此不予讨论。
三.“政府掌握国有企业的大部分所有权”,是商务部论证“公共机构政府控制论”时所依据的事实,而不是per se rule,事实与规则不能相混淆。
四.虽然中国提出了有关条约解释的原则(可能是指《维也纳条约法公约》第31条和第32条),但没有做出具体的论证,而且,如果按照条约解释原则来解释“公共机构”,必须承认《SCM协定》第1条规定的“there is a financial contribution by a government or any public body within the territory of a Member (referred to in this Agreement as “government”)”是应该最先予以考虑的上下文。关于《SCM协定》第1条1.1(a)(1)(iv)的规定,不否定其构成上下文的可能性,但该条款不可能凌驾于直接规定“公共机构”的上下文之上。
五.如上所述,关于“私营机构”是否受到政府的“委托”或“指示”的证明,只有在国有企业被视为私营机构的情况下具有实际意义,其与所有权的证明无关,也与“公共机构”的解释无关。
综上诉所,中国虽然援引了“美国对韩国半导体反补贴调查案”上诉机构的报告,但并未找到支撑“公共机构政府职能论”的任何依据,不仅如此,中国的论证严重偏离了解释“公共机构”的主题。
3. “加拿大乳制品进口措施案”
为论证“公共机构政府职能论”,中国援引的另一个WTO判例是“加拿大乳制品进口措施案”。[33] 那么,该案上诉机构的解释能否支持“公共机构政府职能论”呢?
中国主张:某个实体构成“公共机构”,其必须被国家法律授权以执行政府或公共性职能并且其行为是对该权限的行使。[34] 在此意义上(In this context),中国对“加拿大乳制品进口措施案”上述机构报告予以说明(paraphrasing),并主张:“公共机构”应该被定义为“为实现政府性职能的目的而行使权力(或权限)的实体”。[35] 笔者认为,在提出“国有企业”行为应被视为“私营机构”行为之前,直接对“公共机构”进行解释是完全符合法律规定的做法。在此,需要考察中国为解释“公共机构”所引用的该案上诉机构报告第97段:
We start our interpretive task with the text of Article 9.1(a) and the ordinary meaning of the word "government" itself. According to Black''s Law Dictionary, "government" means, inter alia, "[t]he regulation, restraint, supervision, or control which is exercised upon the individual members of an organized jural society by those invested with authority". (emphasis added) This is similar to meanings given in other dictionaries. The essence of "government" is, therefore, that it enjoys the effective power to "regulate", "control" or "supervise" individuals, or otherwise "restrain" their conduct, through the exercise of lawful authority. This meaning is derived, in part, from the functions performed by a government and, in part, from the government having the powers and authority to perform those functions. A "government agency" is, in our view, an entity which exercises powers vested in it by a "government" for the purpose of performing functions of a "governmental" character, that is, to "regulate", "restrain", "supervise" or "control" the conduct of private citizens. As with any agency relationship, a "government agency" may enjoy a degree of discretion in the exercise of its functions.